Dr. Tajuddeen A. Williams

Perceived racism among Blacks: Collective self-esteem and psychological well-being in “post-racial” America

· Personal Essays

Abstract

Introduction

Since Kaepernick’s decision on August 26 to not stand for the national anthem as a way of to highlight injustice, there has been much discussion (Crepeau, 2016). Since then, many others have done so as well. His actions are widely symbolic in the sense that it means "why should I stand for a country that will not stand for me?" After a significant amount of press he received for his actions, police unions weighed in on his decision by stating that he is disrespectful, while other groups including veterans supported his decision to exercise his right to free speech. Other individuals and groups have issue death threats or threats of bodily harm. However, the response to his actions highlights the problems facing the Black community in this country. Though the First Amendment guarantees free speech, in gauging public outrage, it does not seem to apply to people of color (Lindner & Nosek, 2009), especially when they want to bring attention to injustices they experience. Therefore, this proposed study will involve collective self-esteem and psychological well–being among Blacks in “post-racial” America. The title is a bit tongue-in-cheek because half of America believe we live in a post-racial society (Pew Research Center, 2014).

With the recent Black Lives Matter movement and growing racial tension in America, understanding how Blacks are doing is important because it negatively impacts the quality of their lives (Brown et al., 2000; Martinez & Dukes, 1997). Blacks represent the largest racial minority in this country (Alba, Rumbaut, & Marotz, 2005). They have ties to this country that is as old as its founding by Whites. However, they tend to be the most marginalized of any minority group (W. A. Smith, Hung, & Franklin, 2011). Studies have demonstrated that Blacks are being pulled over, locked up, and killed by police more than any other group (Brunson & Miller, 2006; Correll, Hudson, Guillermo, & Ma, 2014; Correll et al., 2007; Holmes & Smith, 2012; Lee, 2004; Mekawi & Bresin, 2015). Having knowledge of this information and having lived experience can be distressing for many Blacks (Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). However, there are no other studies currently addressing collective self-esteem and psychological well-being among Blacks in "post-racial" America among the general population.

Despite the small number of people of color in the United States, Blacks make up the second largest minority but are killed at a higher rate than Whites by police (T. R. Miller et al., 2016). Studies show that Blacks are stopped at a higher rate than other races, which have often led to negative confrontations with police officers (T. R. Miller et al., 2016). Data from the New York Police Department show that over 50% of their “stop and frisk” operations target Blacks with only 12% targeting Whites despite the fact that Blacks only make up 25% of the population (Gelman, Fagan, & Kiss, 2007). Currently, many feel that the police are pushing Blacks to the breaking point with the increasing number of killings and lack of accountability (Correll et al., 2007).

Low self-esteem has been shown to correlate with some outcomes including but not limited to depression, suicidal tendencies, eating disorders and anxiety as well as violence as substance abuse (Renaud & McConnell, 2007). Over the past 15 years, empirical studies have shown that self-esteem is directly correlated to health and quality of life (Cooper, 2009; Dogan, Totan, & Sapmaz, 2013). Although recent studies show that Blacks have higher self-esteem than most races within the United States (Twenge & Crocker, 2002), they lack low collective, and personal efficacy in the face continued racism, prejudice, and bias.

Self-esteem is strongly related to a variety of measures of adjustment and is a central aspect of well-being. Studies show that individuals who are high in self-esteem are at a lower risk of depression (Battle, 1978) and hopelessness. Even though collective and personal self-esteem may be high among Blacks, as a direct result of the continued bias and microaggressions that many Blacks must face daily, they may be more susceptible to depression.

The purpose of the study is to identify how prejudice and racism affect Blacks in this country considering attitudes that racism does not exist. The study will have multiple objectives, including:

1. To determine the relationship between life satisfaction and depression with regards to racism.

2. To determine how life-satisfaction affects well-being in different demographics among Blacks in America.

There is little known about how racism affects well-being among Blacks in America; a third objective will include:

3. To determine the relationship of factors between racism and well-being.

Within the context of this research, I would like to measure levels of self-esteem and psychological well-being within Blacks within the United States by utilizing the Collective Self-Esteem Scale (CSES). The CSES is directly related to social identity theory’s self-esteem hypothesis which studies have shown that intergroup discrimination elevates self-esteem and low self-esteem motivates discrimination (Rubin & Hewstone, 1998).

Cognitive behavioral theory posits that people who are affected by depression think differently than those who are not (M. Mann, Hosman, Schaalma, & de Vries, 2004). Therefore, those who are depressed may view their environment and their future in a negative light. This is important because it may be able to explain part of the reason why there is a lack of progress within the Black community within the United States. As mentioned earlier, valuations of low self-esteem and depression can affect the quality of life (M. Mann et al., 2004).

Crocker, Luhtanen, Blaine, and Broadnax (1994) did a study on collective well-being and psychological well-being among White, Black, and Asian college students. The study lacked generalizability since it focused only on college students, and therefore could not be applied to the general population. Likewise, without considering the environment and racial climate at the time, it is hard to understand why self-esteem was high yet self-efficacy was low. Also, at the time, there was no correlation between self-esteem and well-being. The metric used for well-being may not have applied equally to the three groups as well considering that one of the groups was from a collectivistic culture.

Because of the direct actions of not only the police but the increasing racism within the United States, Blacks suffer from low personal efficacy and hopelessness when looking towards the future. Collective self-esteem has been shown to be a predictor of several aspects of psychological well-being (Dogan et al., 2013). However, despite self-esteem levels, Blacks suffer from a lower quality of life because of environmental factors that are not affected by self-esteem, but by low personal efficacy. I also hypothesize that repeated exposure to real and perceived racism and discriminative behaviors and situations have a direct and significant effect on the life satisfaction and emotional well-being of Black Americans.

I have determined that a cross-sectional study would be the best research design for my study. Cross-sectional studies involve data collection from a single point in time from a specified population, and can also be used to infer causation despite the fact they are mainly used for prevalence (C. J. Mann, 2003). Also, cross-sectional studies lend itself to using questionnaires (C. J. Mann, 2003), which is my primary means of collecting data. It offers the ability to assess relations between variables and subgroups within a population as well. This design is the least expensive to implement but presents the most difficult design in determining cause and effect (C. J. Mann, 2003). A cross-sectional study also allows for me to gather data from a large geographical area unlike observational studies (Bernard, 1987).

I have considered other research designs such as a panel study, which is a type of longitudinal study that collects information from the same persons over time. By collecting data this way, I would be provided the best way in determining cause and effect (Blossfeld, Schneider, & Doll, 2009). For example, I could address the hypothesis that the current racial climate is a determinant in psychological well-being, granted that the racially charged climate of today subsides are intensifies. Unfortunately, doing a panel study is often difficult and expensive to implement (Lazarsfeld, 1940). One of the reasons for this is because people may be willing to participate in a single cross-sectional survey; however, they may not be so willing to complete multiple interviews (Baird, Lucas, & Donnellan, 2010). Also, people die, move, and at other times may be difficult to locate, and this would, therefore, threaten the representativeness of my panel study (Baird et al., 2010). Lastly, considering the reason why I am doing this particular study, respondents may become sensitive to the issues under investigation; thus, changing the phenomena being studied (Bridge, Reeder, Kanouse, Kinder, & Nagy, 1977).

Because some of the items in my study have been studied before, my study does not lend itself to being exploratory. Typically, exploratory studies are done when there are few or no earlier studies to rely on to predict outcomes (Grove & Andreasen, 1982). As such, they are used to gain insight on how best to proceed in studying an issue. Unfortunately, due to the nature of a study being exploratory, it does not have the ability to make definite conclusions about any findings (Stebbins, 2001).

Panel studies are difficult to maintain contact and match data over time. Researchers found that loss of communication by way of loss of telephone service posed a problem in their longitudinal study, but they accounted for that by having multiple ways of contacting the people involved (Seibold-Simpson & Morrison-Beedy, 2010). This included secondary contact information such as relative’s, school, and work phone numbers as well as their email addresses. In one study, the researchers noted that the longer the follow-up period was, the more likely subjects dropped out (Gustavson, Soest, Karevold, & Røysamb, 2012). In taking a lesson from them, shortening the follow-up period may help to reduce attrition.

I considered another type of cross-sectional study that could yield similar results as a panel study. Repeat cross-sectional studies draw data from the same population at two more points in time. Moretti (2004) used both longitudinal and repeated cross-sectional and found that the data was consistent between the two. A study utilizing repeat cross-sectional data analysis was also done by Schuman**,** Steeh, Bobo, and Krysan (1997) who documented the prevalence of positive attitudes towards the principles of equal treatment between Blacks and Whites between the 1940s and 1980s.

Method

The study will be carried out by survey online. Due to the differences between Blacks in the United States and regional and environmental influences, I wish to gain the viewpoints and opinions of all of them. This study is intended to address the population of Blacks in the United States. Due to the vast diversity in socioeconomic status and other related variables, this will not be an easy task. Therefore, it is essential to delineate the locale from which the sample of the study is drawn. The setting for this proposed study consists of Blacks who are native to America. Although the issue of prejudice and racism affects all who live here, immigrants included, I cannot account for the differences across cultures, such as individualism versus collectivism.

I intend to use non-probability sampling by way of online data collection. My primary method will be to collect data by way of internet questionnaires. Although there are reservations in utilizing such a method because internet surveys are not representative of the total population of internet users, it can at least provide access to a sub-population (Van Selm & Jankowski, 2006). Even though achieving a random sample is difficult, it is not impossible (Van Selm & Jankowski, 2006).

Convenience sampling is one of the easiest sampling methods that a researcher can use. It is cheap, not very time intensive, and it allows you to gather information in a way that is not viable using probability sampling techniques. However, since it is a technique that is based on the judgment of the researcher, it lends itself to several biases such as systematic and sample selection bias (Fisher, 1993; Schonlau, van Soest, Kapteyn, & Couper, 2009). This can lead to skewed results (Cummings, Savitz, & Konrad, 2001). Another issue with convenience sampling is that it is not generalizable. As such, a researcher cannot make any inferences about the population. Otherwise, they should expect low external validity (Lynch, 1982).

A major concern for survey researchers with web surveys is the response rate since they tend to be relatively low. Although Fan and Yan (2010) have cited web surveys having a low coverage area, which may result in a biased population, studies show that almost 90% of the population of the United States has access to the internet (File & Ryan, 2014), with its usage increasing by 6% every year since 2012 (Rentz et al., 2016). Unlike paper surveys, which take much time to produce, web-based surveys can collect many data in a small amount of time. This translates into less time needed to collect data. They can also be emailed or posted on social media, which increases their visibility (Wright, 2005). Likewise, the cost to administer it is minimal in comparison to the mailing and printing cost of doing a paper survey (Fricker & Schonlau, 2002).

Face-to-face data collection tends to be more accurate (Opdenakker, 2006). It is harder for the individual being interviewed to provide false information (Wright, 2005). For instance, if a researcher is asking about race or ethnicity, a respondent will probably not give a false answer considering the interviewer is right in front of him or her. Unlike web surveys, which can be put off for an infinite amount of time or subject to distractions, a face-to-face interview allows the interviewer to control the interview and keep the interviewer focused. Unlike the web and paper-based surveys, much more information can be collected such as verbal and non-verbal cues, emotions, and behaviors (Opdenakker, 2006). Although there are plenty of advantages to this type of data collection, face-to-face interviews tend to be cost prohibitive (Fricker & Schonlau, 2002). Also, this directly correlates to sample size. A researcher cannot expect a large sample size unless money is not an issue.

A general concern of self-administered questionnaires is that you are limited on the complexity of the questions. If questions are more complex than usual and need explanation, it is better to use a computer- assisted self-administered interviews (Chang & Krosnick, 2010). Which brings up another matter. As a researcher, you have no control over how people may interpret the questions on a self-administered survey. This is regardless of whether this survey is on paper or distributed via the Internet. Many things can get lost in translation especially when different cultures are involved. Unfortunately, this method lends itself to not allowing for a person to ask any questions about what an item means.

This study will take advantage of several preexisting scales. Many of these scales have been used in prior research concerning this subject. However, there is one addition to this study that is lacking in the others, and that is the addition of the Perceived Racism Scale. In concert with the other scales, a correlation should be allowed to be made, if one exists, between perceived racism, life satisfaction, hopelessness, self-esteem, and depression.
Personal self-esteem The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES) was initially developed as a Guttman scale. However, it is commonly scored as a Likert scale. It is a widely used and well-validated measure of global, personal self-esteem (see Wylie, 1974). The scale comprises of 10 items on a four-point scale ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree (e.g., “On the whole, I am satisfied with myself”) (Luhtanen & Crocker, 1992). The scale was developed by Dr. Morris Rosenberg in the 1960s, and the sample for the scale consisted of 5,024 high school juniors and seniors from 10 randomly selected schools in New York State. SES generally has high reliability with test-retest correlations between .79 and .88 (Robins, Hendin, & Trzesniewski, 2001).
Depression Depression will be measured by a short form version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), multiple-choice self-report inventory, which consists of 13 of the 21 items on the original BDI (Furlanetto, Mendlowicz, & Romildo Bueno, 2005). Scores are recorded on a scale of values from 0 to 3 based on the severity of each item, then tabulated once complete with a maximum total score of 39. The BDI is one of the most widely used self-rating scales and is a well-validated measure of depressive mood and symptomatology (Bumberry, Oliver, & McClure, 1978; Hammen, 1980; Scogin, Beutler, Corbishley, & Hamblin, 1988).

Life Satisfaction The Satisfaction With Life Scale (SWLS) is a five-item measure of general judgment of one's quality of life and is shown to have high internal consistency and high temporal reliability (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 2010). It was developed to assess satisfaction with people’s lives as a whole, but not assess satisfaction with specific life domains, such as health or finances (Pavot, Diener, Colvin, & Sandvik, 1991).

Perceived Racism Scale The Perceived Racism Scale, is a multidimensional scaled used to assess White racism among African Americans (McNeilly et al., 1996). The first section of the scale consists of 43 of the 51 items with a 7-point summated rating scale. The purpose of this section is to measure the frequency of African American’s exposure to racism, whereas the last eight items assess coping skills to racism. The scale has found to be reliable with Cronbach’s alpha for the subscale scores ranging from .64 to .95 (Atkins, 2014). The lower Cronbach alpha was on one measure, getting violent, but all other measure was between .85 and .95 (McNeilly et al., 1996).

Beck Hopelessness Scale The Beck Hopelessness Scale was developed by Dr. Aaron T. Beck, and it is a 20-item self-report inventory to measure different aspects of hopelessness (Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974). The scale measures feelings about the future, loss of motivation, and expectations. Although 20-item true or false scale is meant to measure negative attitudes about the future, it was originally developed to predict who would attempt suicide or not. The scale features KR-20 coefficients ranging from .82 to .93. Aside from being reliable, it also features concurrent validity (Beck, Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974).

These scales will be used to measure one independent variable, two dependent variables, and the moderator variables, which will be used to determine the extent to which the relationship between the three independent variables are influenced by secondary factors. The instruments will have instruction on how to fill them out. A pilot test of the procedures and the online survey will be completed to see if any there are any required changes. The survey will need to be filled out in one session only, and no responses will be saved for incomplete surveys. Also, there will be no follow-up calls at the end of the survey.

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